Gene flow connects key leopard (Panthera pardus) populations despite habitat fragmentation and persecution

The leopard (Panthera pardus) is facing the threat of continued population decline across its range. In order to inform more effective conservation management programs, genetic information is needed from leopard populations that persist in previously unstudied, isolated and highly fragmented protected areas. The aim of this study was to explore the population structure and genetic diversity of leopard populations across the Mpumalanga province of South Africa. We collected a total of 33 leopard samples from four major locations along a west to east transect across the province. We analysed 17 polymorphic microsatellites and two regions of the mitochondrial genome (NADH-5 and Cytb) to determine the genetic structure of the leopard population in the province. We also calculated genetic diversity indices and explored gene flow in the region. We found that while there is gene flow occurring across the province, the population was genetically structured. We identified two major population units that we describe as ‘West Mpumalanga’ and ‘East Mpumalanga’. Gene flow was moderate between the two populations and we found very high genetic diversity levels compared to other leopard populations previously studied in South Africa. From a conservation perspective, our results show that gene flow is still occurring across seemingly isolated leopard populations that exist in fragmented landscapes, highlighting the importance of all leopard populations in South Africa. Management authorities need to focus conservation efforts on maintaining corridors between regions that are suitable for leopard occupancy and work closely with human settlements to minimise human-leopard conflicts.