Review of the Forel–Ule Index based on in situ and remote sensing methods and application in water quality assessment

Water pollution is considered an acute worldwide environmental issue. At present, the commonly adopted method of water quality characterisation involves the retrieval of optically active water quality parameters based on remote sensing reflectance (Rrs), but this method is subject to the limitation that understanding local scatter and absorption characteristics of light is essential to precisely derive these parameters. Water colour primarily depends on water constituents and is traditionally gauged with the Forel–Ule (FU) scale. In recent years, Rrs within the visible region has been considered to determine the Forel–Ule Index (FUI) for water colour measurement. The FUI exhibits the advantages of remote sensing and does not rely on local retrieval algorithms. Therefore, this index can characterise natural waters in a simple and globally effective manner. As there exists a lack of review articles on the FUI, we present a comprehensive review of this index that may help researchers progress. First, we introduce the most recent techniques for FUI measurement, especially remote sensing–deriving methods. Then, we summarise FUI applications in water quality assessment of oceans and inland waters. Finally, FUI development trends, challenges and application perspectives are examined.