Air–sea interaction over the Indian Ocean due to variations in the Indonesian throughflow

The effects of the Indonesian throughflow on the upper thermocline circulation and surface heat flux over the Indian Ocean are presented for a 3-D ocean model forced by two different monthly wind–stress climatologies, as they show interesting differences, which could have implications for long-term variability in the Indian and Australasian monsoons. The effects are determined by contrasting a control run with a run in which the throughflow is blocked by an artificial land-bridge across the exit channels into the Indian Ocean. In the model forced by ECMWF wind stresses, there is little impact on the annual mean surface heat flux in the region surrounding the throughflow exit straits, whereas in the model forced by SSM/I-based wind stresses, a modest throughflow of less than 5 ×106 m3s–1 over the upper 300 m induces an extra 10–50 Wm–2 output. In the SSM/I-forced model, there is insignificant penetration of the throughflow into the northern Indian Ocean. However, in the ECMWF-forced model, the throughflow induces a 5–10 Wm–2 reduction in heat input into the ocean, i.e., an effective output, over the Somali Current in the annual mean. These differences are attributed to differences in the strength and direction of the Ekman transport of the ambient flow, and the vertical structure of the transport and temperature anomalies associated with the throughflow. In both models, the throughflow induces a 5–30 Wm–2 increase in net output over a broad swathe of the southern Indian Ocean, and a reduction in heat output of 10–60 Wm–2 in a large L-shaped band around Tasmania. Effective increases in throughflow-induced net output reach up to 40 (60) Wm–2 over the Agulhas Current retroflection in the ECMWF (SSM/I)-forced model. Seasonal variations in the throughflow's effect on the net surface heat flux are attributed to seasonal variations in the ambient circulation of the Indian Ocean, specifically in coastal upwelling along the south Javan, west Australian, and Somalian coasts, and in the depth of convective overturning between 40°S to 50°S, and its sensing of the mean throughflow's thermal anomaly. The seasonal anomalies plus annual mean yield maximum values for the throughflow-induced net surface heat output in boreal summer. Values may exceed 40 Wm–2 in the southern Indian Ocean interior in both models, exceed 60 Wm–2 over the Agulhas retroflection and immediate vicinity of the exit channels in the SSM/I-forced model, and reach 30 Wm–2 over the Somali jet in the ECMWF-forced model.