We quantify the spatial and temporal aspects of the urban heat-island (UHI) effect for Kanpur, a major city in the humid sub-tropical monsoon climate of the Gangetic basin. Fixed station measurements are used to investigate the diurnality and inter-seasonality in the urban–rural differences in surface temperature (ΔTs\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\Delta } T_\mathrm{s}$$\end{document}) and air temperature (ΔTc\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\Delta } T_\mathrm{c}$$\end{document}) separately. The extent of the spatial variations of the nighttime ΔTc\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\Delta } T_\mathrm{c}$$\end{document} and ΔTs\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\Delta } T_\mathrm{s}$$\end{document} is investigated through mobile campaigns and satellite remote sensing respectively. Nighttime ΔTc\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\Delta } T_\mathrm{c}$$\end{document} values dominate during both the pre-monsoon (maximum of 3.6 ∘C\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$^\circ \hbox {C}$$\end{document}) and the monsoon (maximum of 2.0 ∘C\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$^\circ \hbox {C}$$\end{document}). However, the diurnality in ΔTs\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\Delta } T_\mathrm{s}$$\end{document} is different, with higher daytime values during the pre-monsoon, but very little diurnality during the monsoon. The nighttime ΔTs\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\Delta } T_\mathrm{s}$$\end{document} value is mainly associated with differences in the urban–rural incoming longwave radiative flux (r2=0.33\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$r^{2}=0.33$$\end{document} during the pre-monsoon; 0.65 during the monsoon), which, in turn, causes a difference in the outgoing longwave radiative flux. This difference may modulate the nighttime ΔTc\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\Delta } T_\mathrm{c}$$\end{document} value as suggested by significant correlations (r2=0.68\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$r^{2}=0.68$$\end{document} for the pre-monsoon; 0.50 for the monsoon). The magnitude of ΔTc\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\Delta } T_\mathrm{c}$$\end{document} may also be modulated by advection, as it is inversely related with the urban wind speed. A combination of in situ, remotely sensed, and model simulation data were used to show that the inter-seasonality in ΔTs\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\Delta } T_\mathrm{s}$$\end{document}, and, to a lesser extent, in ΔTc\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\Delta } T_\mathrm{c}$$\end{document}, may be related to the change in the land use of the rural site between the pre-monsoon and the monsoon periods. Results suggest that the degree of coupling of ΔTs\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\Delta } T_\mathrm{s}$$\end{document} and ΔTc\documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$${\Delta } T_\mathrm{c}$$\end{document} may be a strong function of land use and land cover.
