Why is grouper larval rearing difficult?: an approach from the development of the feeding apparatus in early stage larvae of the grouper,Epinephelus coioides

The osteological development of elements forming the oral cavity was examined in early stage larvae of the grouper,Epinephelus coioides, from hatching to 242.5 hours after hatching. By the time of initial mouth opening, at 54 hours after hatching, the fundamental elements, composed of the trabecula, some components of the lower branchial and hyoid arches, the quadrate and symplectic-hyomandibular cartilages, maxilla and Meckel's cartilage, had appeared. No further elements were observed until 165 hours after initial mouth opening, except some components in the lower branchial arch and head region. The appearance of new elements and initial ossification of existing cartilage occurred thereafter, but all elements related to feeding either had not appeared or had not started ossifying until 188.5 hours after initial mouth opening. Based on the morphology and developmental modes of these elements, the feeding mode of grouper larvae was considered to be “sucking/grasping.” However, the appearance and ossification of elements occurred slowly, with no transitional phase from sucking to grasping modes of feeding being observed during the study; such delayed development of the feeding-related bony elements was considered to be a cause of the difficulty in rearing early stage grouper larvae.