Pathophysiological mechanisms of mineralocorticoid receptor-dependent cardiovascular and chronic kidney disease

Accumulating evidence has indicated the potential contributions of aldosterone and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) to the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Patients with primary aldosteronism have a higher risk of CVD and CKD than those with essential hypertension. MR is strongly expressed in endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells, cardiomyocytes, fibroblasts, macrophages, glomerular mesangial cells, podocytes, and proximal tubular cells. In these cardiovascular and renal cells, aldosterone-induced cell injury is prevented by MR blockade. Interestingly, MR antagonists elicit beneficial effects on CVD and CKD in subjects with low or normal plasma aldosterone levels. Recent studies have shown that during development of CVD and CKD, cardiovascular and renal MR is activated by glucocorticoid and ligand-independent mechanisms, such as Rac1 signaling pathways. These data indicate that inappropriate activation of local MR contributes to cardiovascular and renal tissue injury through aldosterone-dependent and -independent mechanisms. In this review, recent findings on the specific role of cardiovascular and renal MR in the pathogenesis of CVD and CKD are summarized.