Effect of uniform and non-uniform skin temperature on thermal exchanges in water in humans

We investigated the effect of uniform (UST) and non-uniform (NUST) skin temperature on thermal exchanges during a 3-h water immersion in five male subjects wearing (NUST) or not wearing (UST) a water-perfused garment. UST was achieved by immersing the nude subject in water up to the neck. For each subject, the water temperature was adjusted to the critical temperature (Tcw, 31.4 ± 0.9 °C) or 3 °C below Tcw (Tcw – 3). NUST was achieved by perfusing different segments of the perfused garment with water of different temperatures. The water temperature of the segment was independently adjusted according to the skin temperature distribution in cold air, the mean skin temperature being the same as the UST. At Tcw and Tcw – 3, changes in esophageal and mean skin temperatures were identical in UST and NUST conditions, but the skin temperature of the trunk was higher and that of the limb was lower in the NUST condition. Heat production and the overall skin heat flux at Tcw were identical in the two conditions, but those at Tcw – 3 were about 25% lower (P < 0.05) in NUST than in UST conditions. At Tcw – 3, the overall tissue insulation was 36% higher (P < 0.05) in NUST than in UST conditions, mainly because of higher limb insulation. Thermogenesis due to shivering was lower by 62% (P < 0.05) in NUST than in UST. We conclude that the NUST condition increased tissue insulation and suppressed shivering. This suggests that a high skin temperature of the trunk attenuates shivering in cold water and increases the ability to defend body temperature more economically in cold water.