Higher education expansion, tracking, and student effort

This paper studies the effects of tracking on student effort and academic achievement during secondary school. Students under the comprehensive school system make effort to increase their academic achievement that determines the probability of gaining admissions to college. As college admissions become less competitive or it becomes easier to gain admissions, it increases the benefits of effort, encouraging more effort. Those students streamed into academic tracks at early ages under tracking are most likely to be admitted to college, and the competitiveness of college admissions does not affect their effort. As a result, tracking tends to perform worse in terms of average secondary-school academic achievement, as higher education expands and college admissions become less competitive.