A critical review of textile industry wastewater: green technologies for the removal of indigo dyes

The denim textile industry represents an important productive sector. It generates wastewater with low biodegradability due to the presence of persistent pollutants, which can produce toxic and carcinogenic compounds; therefore, wastewater treatment reduces risks to aquatic life and public health. This paper presents a review of 172 papers regarding textile industry wastewater treatment for the removal of contaminants, especially indigo dyes used in the denim industry, in the context of green technologies. The physicochemical characteristics of textile wastewater, its environmental and health impacts, and the permissible limit regulations in different countries were reviewed. Biological, physicochemical and advanced oxidation processes for the removal of indigo dyes were reviewed. The goal of this study was to analyze the characteristics of green technologies; however, the research does not clearly demonstrate an effect on energy consumption savings, carbon footprint decreases, and/or waste generation. Advanced oxidation processes showed the highest color removal efficiency (95 and 97% in synthetic or real wastewater, respectively). Photocatalysis and Fenton reactions were the most efficient processes. None of the revised works presented results regarding upscaling for industrial application, and the results should be discussed in terms of the guidelines and maximum permissible limits established by international legislation. New technologies need to be developed and evaluated in a sustainable context with real wastewater.