How do autonomy and learner characteristics combine to influence learners’ learning outcomes and cognitive load in virtual reality learning environments? A fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis approach

Virtual reality learning environment (VRLE), which allow students to transcend time and space and provide them with a sense of immersion, is becoming more common in education. Although many studies have explored the effects of VRLE on learners’ learning outcomes as well as learning experiences, the results of these studies indicate that the effects of VRLE on learning outcomes and cognitive load are mixed. This is influenced by multiple factors that can be broadly grouped into two categories: learner characteristics and VRLE features. This study aimed to investigate how the autonomy of VRLE and learner characteristics affect learning in the VRLE. 94 volunteered students (aged 18 to 26) were randomly assigned to a high-autonomy VRLE (N = 47) or a low-autonomy VRLE (N = 47). We did a fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) and discovered that VRLE is not good for all students but only for those with particular features. According to the findings, teachers should personalize their use of instructional technology depending on the profiles of their students.