Occurrence of disinfection by-products in tap water distribution systems and their associated health risk

The concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs), including chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform, and haloacetic acids (HAAs; monochloroacetic acid, monobromoacetic acid, dibromoacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, and trichloroacetic acid) were measured in tap waters passing through water distribution systems of six water treatment plants in Seoul, Korea, and their associated health risks from exposure to THMs through ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation were estimated using a probabilistic approach. The concentration ranges for total THMs and HAA5 were 3.9–53.5 and <LOD–49.5 μg/L, respectively. Among DBPs, chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dichloroacetic acid, and trichloroacetic acid were the most frequently detected. Spatial and seasonal variations in concentrations of THMs and HAAs in the six water distribution systems were significant (P < 0.001).The mean lifetime cancer risks through ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation during showering ranged as 7.23–10.06 × 10−6, 2.19–3.63 × 10−6, and 5.22–7.35 × 10−5, respectively. The major exposure route to THMs was inhalation during showering. Sensitivity analysis showed that shower time and shower frequency had a great impact on the lifetime cancer risk by the exposure to THMs in tap water.