A GIS approach for groundwater quality evaluation with entropy method and fluoride exposure with health risk assessment

This study used the entropy water quality index to analyse the suitability of groundwater for human consumption as well as the hazard index to identify the probable non-carcinogenic dangers among children, women, and men in Nawada, Bihar (India). A total of 75 groundwater samples were taken from hand pumps and tube/bore wells in the pre-monsoon of 2017, and they were evaluated for various physicochemical characteristics. The region’s groundwater major cations and anions are dominated by Ca2+ > Mg2+ and HCO3-\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\text{HCO}}_{3}^{ - }$$\end{document} > Cl− > SO42-\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\text{SO}}\;_{{4}}^{{2 - }}$$\end{document}  > NO3− > F > PO42-\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\text{PO}}_{{4}}^{{2 - }}$$\end{document}. Fluoride, chloride, and hardness exceeded WHO and BIS safe standards. Calcium, sodium, magnesium, sulphate, and chloride showed positive correlations, indicating water–rock interactions and mineral leaching and dissolution. Ionic cross-plots reveal that the dissolution of carbonate minerals was the primary source of calcium and magnesium in the groundwater. Also, silicate weathering contributed to these ions in the groundwater. The entropy water quality index (EWQI) found that 79% of groundwater samples were drinkable, whereas 21% were not consumable. The eastern, western, and some southern study areas have the worst drinking water quality. The main source of fluoride toxicity in people is groundwater. For all sampling locations, the HQ fluoride was calculated to be in the ranges of 0.04–3.69 (male), 0.04–3.27 (female), and 0.05–4 (children), indicating a considerably greater risk than the permissible levels (> 1). The fluoride-based non-carcinogenic risks are 27%, 20%, and 21% for children, women, and men, respectively. Children have higher risks from polluted water than adults, according to the non-carcinogenic health risk assessment. This study establishes a standard for regional and global scientific studies that help decision-makers and planners determine the quality of groundwater and fluoride risk and management.