Tectonics or climate: What drove the Miocene global expansion of C4 grasslands?

Investigations into the most plausible causes which triggered the Late Miocene global expansion of C4 grasslands have reached no consensus and are still being debated. The global decline in CO2 levels in the Late Miocene has been thought to be the most common driver. Although C4 grassland expansion was largely confined to the Late Miocene, their first appearance varied significantly in different parts of the Old and New world and therefore emphasizes role of local and/or regional factors may or may not be in combination with one or more global factors. The dynamic Himalayan orogen constitutes a significant global tectonic event that is believed to have affected global climate. Hence, a study of the Himalayan foreland basin sediments could help in gleaning out possible causes behind this major paleoecologic event, which could perhaps be directly or indirectly related. Stable carbon isotope analyses of a total of 141 pedogenic carbonates in the Mio-Pleistocene Siwalik paleosols of the Ramnagar sub-basin are coherent, providing a better insight into paleovegetational changes across the sub-basin on temporal and spatial scales. Furthermore, paleovegetational history during Oligocene is reconstructed from Dagshai paleosols exposed in the Subathu sub-basin. The isotopic results show dominance of C3 vegetation pre-7 Ma and dominance of C4 vegetation post-5 Ma. Percentage abundance of C4 vegetation was less than 20 % pre-7 Ma but increased to more than 40 % post-5 Ma, reaching up to 100 % in the youngest analyzed sediments. There is exclusive dominance of C3 vegetation during Oligocene. These results conform to the pattern of change in vegetation documented in other parts of the Himalayan belt. The global expansion of C4 grasslands largely during Late Miocene have long been linked with then climate changes, particularly brought by declining atmospheric CO2 level, large-scale fires, intensification of monsoon, seasonality, and aridity as demonstrated by various researchers. These major hypotheses explaining expansion of C4 grasslands during Late Miocene are not very convincing due to significant shortcomings associated with them, for example, expansion of C4 grasslands in non-monsoonal regions put serious constraints on the monsoonal intensification hypothesis. Likewise, aridity as being the primary driver of C4 grassland expansion seems hard to support since there is no substantial evidence that could suggest global onset of arid conditions at about same geologic time, and some most arid periods, like the Triassic, show no evidence of C4 plants. We suggest that the initial lowering of CO2 below 450 ppmV created an environment for the beginning of C4 vegetation, but the persistence of this threshold value for a considerable time during Late Miocene appears to be the probable cause of the Late Miocene global expansion of C4 grasslands irrespective of their time of first appearance. It has been deduced through the correlation of Himalayan tectonic events with atmospheric CO2 levels and paleovegetational changes since Upper Miocene times that it was indeed the Late Miocene continuous, intense tectonic instability of the Himalayas that significantly decreased atmospheric CO2 levels and which perhaps played a key role in changing the nature of photosynthetic pathways.