Bacterial endocytobionts of ciliophora and their interactions with the host cell

Ciliates may be hosts for numerous bacteria, which can occupy almost all cellular compartments of the protists. About 200 ciliate species are recorded as hosts of different intracellular bacteria, being a small part of the diversity for such types of endocytobiosis in nature. In the Paramecium genus alone close to 60 types of bacteria adapted for intracellular life are known. In this review extensive material concerning the variety of endocytobionts, their categories, and their interaction with host cells is presented. Special attention is paid to endocytobiosis in Paramecium with highly infectious bacteria Holospora, bacteria of the Caedibacter and Polynucleobacter genera, methanogenic bacteria, and "xenosomes" as well as to life cycles and strategies of bacterial endonucleobionts. The above model bacteria and their interactions with hosts have not been exhaustively studied. A number of unsolved problems concerning their interactions within an endocytobiotic system and their ecological implications remain to be studied.