Hope, optimism, self-efficacy, and posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analytic review of the protective effects of positive expectancies

Objective The present meta-analysis consolidated research examining how positive expectancies (e.g., hope, self-efficacy, and optimism) may protect against the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Method Articles were identified by searching PILOTS, PsycINFO, PubMed, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses databases. Results Aggregated results from 154 studies indicated that positive expectancies were associated with lower levels of PTSD symptoms. This relationship was stronger for coping-specific self-efficacy (k = 38, r = -.49; -.54 to -.43) and hope (k = 20, r = -.34; -.39 to -.28) compared with general self-efficacy (k = 45, r = -.25; -.30 to -.20) and optimism (k = 59, r = -.29; -.33 to -.25) when examining cross-sectional studies, and results were consistent in prospective studies. Age and gender did not moderate the cross-sectional relationships. Conclusions These findings indicate that positive expectancies predict post-trauma resilience. Future research should identify moderators and examine positive expectancies as mechanisms of change in therapy.