On particle fountains in a stratified environment

We present a series of experiments to explore the dynamics of particle-laden fountains rising through a stratified environment with zero buoyancy flux at the source. We find that the ratio U between the particle sedimentation speed V-s and the characteristic fountain velocity (M0N2)(1/4), where M-0 is the initial momentum flux and N the frequency of the ambient stratification, has a profound effect on the structure of the fountain and the dispersal of the particles. In a mono-disperse particle fountain, when the settling speed of the particles is small in comparison to the characteristic fountain speed (U << 1) the flow initially behaves in an analogous fashion to a single-phase fountain, forming an intrusion at a height of approximately 0.5 of the maximum fountain height. As the fluid-particle mixture spreads out, the particles gradually sediment to the tank floor. The intruding fluid subsequently rises and forms a new intrusion at its neutral buoyancy height. Some of the particles are carried up from the original intrusion with the rising fluid. This leads to the formation of a sedimenting column of particles with a characteristic radius. We observe a transition in the behaviour of the particle fountains in the vicinity of U similar to 0.1, with the particles now separating from the fluid near the top of the fountain. The separation of the particles leads to a reduction in the steady-state height of the particle-laden fountain, while the fluid in the fountain continues upwards until reaching its neutral buoyancy height and forming an intrusion above the fountain top. We compare the experimental data with two models of turbulent fountains to help rationalise the trends observed as a function of the dimensionless fall speed U. We briefly consider the dynamics of poly-disperse particle fountains and relate their dynamics to the regimes observed in their mono-disperse counterparts. We discuss the implications of this work for the dispersal of different sized particles from submarine volcanic eruptions.