Characterisation of rare earth elements and toxic heavy metals in coal and coal fly ash

Due to increasing demand for rare earth elements (REE), growing concerns over their sustainability, and domination of their supply by China, coal fly ash has recently emerged as a viable target for REE recovery. With billions of tonnes in repositories and still more being generated across the globe, it is necessary to develop environmentally friendly and economical extraction technologies for the recovery of the REEs from coal fly ash, and to consider the environmental implications of such a recovery process. This study reports characterisation of Nigerian simulant coal fly ash, and investigates the distribution and leaching of the REEs and U, Th, As, Cr, Cd and Pb from these materials using ethanoic acid. Significant amounts (14% to 31%) of the REEs were recovered in the acid-soluble fraction of a sequential extraction procedure using ethanoic acid. While the greatest amounts of U (53% to 62%) and Th (89% to 96%) were recovered in the stable residual fraction, significant amounts (3% to 13%) of U were recovered in the acid-soluble fraction. As was the most enriched element in the mobile acid-soluble fraction (46% to 60%), followed by Cd (15% to 34%). These results demonstrate that REEs contained within coal fly ash - especially those sourced from coal-fired power plants burning coal at temperatures between 700 degrees C and 1100 degrees C - can be recovered through an environmentally friendly procedure using the cost-effective heap leaching method, with ethanoic acid or the more cheaply-available vinegar as lixiviant. These results are also valuable for cost evaluation of rare earths recovery from coal fly ash generated by fluidised bed combustion coal fired power plants, and the development of methodologies for coal fly ash management.