Transforming growth factor-β1 increases glucocorticoid binding and signaling in macrophages through a Smad- and activated protein-1-mediated process

Background. Renal inflammation is regulated by a network of local and systemic mediators. Of them, transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) and glucocorticoids play an important role in deactivating monocytes/macrophages. We examined the hypothesis that TGF-beta1 effects may be partially achieved through modulation of the sensitivity of these cells to glucocorticoids. Methods. Human promonocytic U 937 cells differentiated to a mature macrophage-like phenotype were exposed to recombinant TGF-beta1 before specific binding of [H-3] dexamethasone was measured. The expression of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) was examined by RNase protection assay and Western blot analysis. The role of Smad 2/3 and activator protein 1 (AP-1) in the response to TGF-beta1 was determined by introducing transdominant negative mutants and decoy oligodeoxynucleotides, respectively. Results. U 937 cell exposure to TGF-beta1 caused a dose- and time-dependent increase in [H-3] dexamethasone binding to these cells, with a less than or equal totwofold increase in the number of binding sites per cell, without modification of the affinity. The changes in glucocorticoid binding were associated with identical changes in GR protein and mRNA levels, that were explained by an increase in GR gene transcription rather than by posttranscriptional mechanisms. Functional inactivation of Smad 2/3 and AP-1 limited the response to TGF-beta1, indicating a role for these transcription factors. Finally, increases in glucocorticoid binding to GR were responsible for increases in the ability of GR to transactivate minimal promoters containing glucocorticoid-responsive elements (GRE) [MMTV-Luc and (GRE)(2) TK-Luc]. Conclusion. TGF-beta1 increases glucocorticoid binding and signaling in inflammatory cells through a Smad 2/3- and AP-1-mediated process. This may represent a new target for intervention to increase glucocorticoid responsiveness.