Urinary bladder and urethral tissue engineering, and 3D bioprinting approaches for urological reconstruction

In the last few decades, tissue engineering evolved as an exciting multidisciplinary field of research. The primary objective of this review is to critically analyze 3D bioprinting-based tissue engineering approaches for urinary bladder and urethra reconstruction.This review critically examines the in vitro and in vivo outcomes of natural, artificial, and hybrid scaffolds. The translational strategies at achieving clinically desired properties and an overview of biomechanical characteristics of urological biomaterials are discussed here. Notably, since the bladder is under continuous dynamic loading and unloading conditions, it is highlighted that 3D bioprinted scaffolds should withstand the biomechanical forces experienced by the native urological tissues and mimic the viscoelastic property of the native bladder tissue. It has been emphasized that 3D bioprinting with biomolecular hydrogelfunctional bioink may be a possible solution to create tissue-engineered patient-specific grafts. The review closes with the authors' perspective on relevant challenges associated with the clinical translation.