Gender differences in spatial orientation: A review

While significant gender differences in spatial abilities consistently emerge, results concerning gender differences in spatial orientation skills are mixed, ranging from "marked differences" to "no-differences". In order to improve our understanding of this phenomenon, literature about gender differences in spatial orientation skills is reviewed from 1983 to 2003. The influence of biological and socio/cultural factors is discussed as well as the hypothesis that gender differences are due to different strategies used to solve orientation tasks. The role of personality factors and the influence of spatial anxiety in orientation performance are also discussed. An additional interpretative hypothesis is proposed highlighting the role of task-difficulty expressed in terms of Visuo-Spatial Working Memory involvement. This interpretation can explain the overall results, resolving some apparent contradictions. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.