Divergent paths of counter-neoliberalization: materiality and the labor process in Bolivia's natural resource sectors

Social scientists have often focused upon how transnational corporations and elites mold socioeconomic organization and change in an era of neoliberal globalization. Often overlooked, however, are the active roles played by labor and nature in the construction of contemporary forms of capitalism. Examining the case of Bolivia, this paper explores how the laborers and natures in the country's two dominant economic sectors-hydrocarbons and minerals-shaped the country's neoliberal and counter-neoliberal shifts. I argue that, while both sectors were subjected to similar processes of neoliberalization, the materiality of the natural resources and the labor required to extract them have created divergent paths of counter-neoliberalization with different implications for the scope and reach of post-neoliberal possibilities. In theorizing neoliberal and counter-neoliberal shifts, scholars should thus seek to understand not only changing property rights, regulations, and institutional forms, but also the intimate relationships between commodities and their creators.