Theory and application of electron channelling contrast imaging under controlled diffraction conditions

Electron channelling contrast imaging (ECCI) is a powerful technique for observing crystal defects, such as dislocations, stacking faults, twins and grain boundaries in the scanning electron microscope. Electron channelling contrast (ECC) is strongest when the primary electron beam excites so called two-beam diffraction conditions in the crystal. In the present approach this is achieved, by a combination of crystal orientation measurement using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and simulation of electron channelling patterns. From the latter, the crystal is rotated such that two-beam diffraction conditions are achieved. This technique is called "ECCI under controlled diffraction conditions" or cECCI. Following an extensive literature review, this paper presents a simple, yet instructive and demonstrative treatment of the theory of ECC of lattice defects based on Bloch wave theory using a two-beam approach. This is followed by a discussion of technical issues associated with an ideal ECC set-up such as optimum detector position and microscope conditions. Subsequently, the appearance of different types of lattice defects under ECCI conditions; namely of dislocations, stacking faults, slip lines, and nanotwins, is discussed in detail. It is shown how different types of defects are distinguished and which type of crystallographic information can be extracted from such observations. Finally, the limits of the technique, particularly in terms of spatial resolution and depth of visibility are discussed and a comparison with the EBSD and transmission electron microscopy techniques with respect to imaging lattice defects is provided. In contrast to many investigations recently published in the literature, the current paper focuses on 'true' backscattering, i.e. on a signal that is recorded with a conventional backscatter detector positioned below the pole piece, and not on forward scattering, where the signal is recorded on a detector usually positioned below the EBSD detector. This has significant advantages in terms of spatial resolution and contrast, which are discussed in the text. (C) 2014 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.