Transfer and toxicity of silver nanoparticles in the food chain

Despite the tremendous interest in silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) based on their wide range of applications, several key questions remain unanswered, especially regarding the trophic transfer and toxicological consequences of AgNPs along the food chain. A detailed understanding of the mechanisms that drive AgNP trophic transfer is currently limited due to the lack of information regarding the steady-state accumulation of AgNPs and their in vivo fate in the food chain. This results in variable patterns of AgNP trophic transfer among various food chains. However, biodynamic approaches in combination with the new tools emerging from methodological advances may provide unique perspectives on the accumulation of AgNPs, their in vivo fate and the molecular features driving toxicity in the food chain. The successful commercialization and use of AgNPs in sustainable development and the avoidance of unintended consequences for the environment and human health will also require a determination of the biogeochemical factors that influence AgNP trophic transfer. This review focuses on the current state of knowledge regarding (i) the trophic availability of AgNPs in the food chain, evaluated using conventional and biodynamic approaches, (ii) the processes that control AgNP trophic transfer, and (iii) the toxicological consequences of AgNP trophic transfer.