Transcranial brain atlas for school-aged children and adolescents

Background: Both fNIRS optodes and TMS coils are placed on the scalp, while the targeted brain activities are inside the brain. An accurate cranio-cortical correspondence is crucial to the precise localization of the cortical area under imaging or stimulation (i.e. transcranial locating), as well as guiding the placement of optodes/coils (i.e. transcranial targeting). However, the existing normative cranio-cortical correspondence data used as transcranial references are predominantly derived from the adult population, and whether and how correspondence changes during childhood and adolescence is currently unclear. Objective: This study aimed to build the age-specific cranio-cortical correspondences for school-aged children and adolescents and investigate its differences to adults. Methods: Age-specific transcranial brain atlases (TBAs) were built with age groups: 6-8, 8-10, 10-12, 12-14, 14-16, and 16-18 years. We compared the performance in both transcranial locating and targeting when using the age-appropriate TBA versus the adult TBA (derived from adult population) for children. Results: These atlases provide age-specific probabilistic cranio-cortical correspondence at a high resolution (average scalp spacing of 2.8 mm). Significant differences in cranio-cortical correspondence between children/adolescents and adults were found: the younger the child, the greater the differences. For children (aged 6-12 years), locating and targeting errors when using the adult TBA reached 10 mm or more in the bilateral temporal lobe and frontal lobe. In contrast, the age-matched TBA reduced these errors to 4-5 mm, an approximately 50% reduction in error. Conclusion: Our work provides an accurate and effective anatomical reference for studies in children and adolescents. (c) 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).