Ecuadorians in the United States and Spain: History, gender and niche formation

Ecuadorian emigration to the United States reveals a classic male-led exodus from rural regions faced by long-term economic decline. Occupational results reflect this model, and the general openness of the American labour market. jobs are gender-segregated, but human capital effects are evident, niches do not dominate male or,female experience, nor do they seem likely to persist. Recent emigration to Spain is distinct: sparked by a sudden economic collapse, it emerges from an urban population with relatively high human capital. It was initially led by women, many of whom left families behind, a rare event in migration history. The labour market in Spain is not only segmented by sex but, for women, characterised by an extraordinary concentration in the lowest occupational category, domestic service. This differential comparative outcome can be explained by the historical setting of the two flows and the gender distinction in migration leadership.