Moisture-Driven Degradation Pathways in Prussian White Cathode Material for Sodium-Ion Batteries

The high-theoretical-capacity (similar to 170 mAh/g) Prussian white (PW), NaxFe[Fe(CN)(6)](y).nH(2)O, is one of the most promising candidates for Na-ion batteries on the cusp of commercialization. However, it has limitations such as high variability of reported stable practical capacity and cycling stability. A key factor that has been identified to affect the performance of PW is water content in the structure. However, the impact of airborne moisture exposure on the electrochemical performance of PW and the chemical mechanisms leading to performance decay have not yet been explored. Herein, we for the first time systematically studied the influence of humidity on the structural and electrochemical properties of monoclinic hydrated (M-PW) and rhombohedral dehydrated (R-PW) Prussian white. It is identified that moisture-driven capacity fading proceeds via two steps, first by sodium from the bulk material reacting with moisture at the surface to form sodium hydroxide and partial oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+. The sodium hydroxide creates a basic environment at the surface of the PW particles, leading to decomposition to Na-4[Fe(CN)(6)] and iron oxides. Although the first process leads to loss of capacity, which can be reversed, the second stage of degradation is irreversible. Over time, both processes lead to the formation of a passivating surface layer, which prevents both reversible and irreversible capacity losses. This study thus presents a significant step toward understanding the large performance variations presented in the literature for PW. From this study, strategies aimed at limiting moisture-driven degradation can be designed and their efficacy assessed.