Independent effects of ocean warming versus acidification on the growth, survivorship and physiology of two Acropora corals

Climate change is the greatest threat to coral reef ecosystems. Importantly, gradual changes in seawater chemistry compounds upon increasing temperatures leading to declines in calcification and survivorship of reef-building corals. To assess relative versus synergistic effects of warming versus ocean acidification, Acropora muricata and Acropora hyacinthus were subjected to three temperature treatments (26 degrees C, 28.5 degrees C, 31 degrees C) crossed with three levels of pCO(2) (410 mu atm, 652 mu atm, 934 mu atm), representing current, mid and end-of-century scenarios for 12 weeks. Temperature increased gradually in the tanks from 26 degrees C to target temperatures over 5 weeks. Once stress was evident in the 31 degrees C (+ 2.5 degrees C above historical summer max) tanks, water temperature was decreased to normal summertime levels (29 degrees C) to assess recovery. pCO(2) was gradually changed from control values (410 mu atm) to target values over a 3 week period where they remained constant until the end of the experiment at 12 weeks. Temperature stress (31 degrees C) significantly impacted survivorship (90-95% decline), and over the long-term, there was a 50-90% decline in calcification across both coral species. Negative effects of mid and end-of-century pCO(2) were largely independent of temperature and caused moderate reductions (36-74%) in calcification rates compared to temperature, over the long-term. Corals that survived temperature stress had higher lipid and protein content, showing that enhanced physiological condition provides an increased capacity to tolerate adverse temperatures. This study demonstrates that given the mortality rates in response to + 2.5 degrees C temperature stress, warming oceans (as opposed to ocean acidification) throughout the remainder of this century poses the greatest threat to reef-building corals.