Microanalysis of old violin varnishes by total-reflection X-ray fluorescence

Total reflection X-ray fluorescence was used to characterize elements (with Z > 13) contained in varnishes applied by prominent violin makers during the last five centuries. Direct analyses of small flakes with masses < 20 mu g show a variety of elements. Some of these elements could be related to key elements of inorganic pigments and additives used to control some of the properties of a varnish. Higher amounts of Fe, As and Pb were found in old products, Mn, Co, Cu, Zn and Pb were used in more recent varnishes. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.