3D plotting in the preparation of newberyite, struvite, and brushite porous scaffolds: using magnesium oxide as a starting material

Calcium phosphate (CaP)-containing materials, such as hydroxyapatite and brushite, are well studied bone grafting materials owing to their similar chemical compositions to the mineral phase of natural bone and kidney calculi. In recent studies, magnesium phosphate (MgP)-containing compounds, such as newberyite and struvite, have shown promise as alternatives to CaP. However, the different ways in degradation and release of Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions in vitro may affect the biocompatibility of CaP and MgP-containing compounds. In the present paper, newberyite, struvite, and brushite 3D porous structures were constructed by 3D-plotting combining with a two-step cementation process, using magnesium oxide (MgO) as a starting material. Briefly, 3D porous green bodies fabricated by 3D-plotting were soaked in (NH4)(2)HPO4 solution to form semi-manufactured 3D porous structures. These structures were then soaked in different phosphate solutions to translate the structures into newberyite, struvite, and brushite porous scaffolds. Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) were used to characterize the phases, morphologies, and compositions of the 3D porous scaffolds. The porosity, compressive strength, in vitro degradation and cytotoxicity on MC3T3-E1 osteoblast cells were assessed as well. The results showed that extracts obtained from immersing scaffolds in alpha-modified essential media induced minimal cytotoxicity and the cells could be attached merely onto newberyite and brushite scaffolds. Newberyite and brushite scaffolds produced through our 3D-plotting and two-step cementation process showed the sustained in vitro degradation and excellent biocompatibility, which could be used as scaffolds for the bone tissue engineering.