Comparative two- and three-dimensional analysis of nanoparticle localization in different cell types by Raman spectroscopic imaging

The increasing production and application of engineered nanomaterials requires a detailed understanding of the potential toxicity of nanoparticles and their uptake in living cells and tissue. For that purpose, a highly sensitive and selective method for detecting single nonlabeled nanoparticles and nanoparticle agglomerations in cells and animal tissue is required. Here, we show that Raman microspectroscopy allows for the specific detection of TiO2 nanoparticles inside cultured NIH/3T3 fibroblasts and RAW 264.7 macrophages. The spatial position of TiO2 nanoparticles and in parallel the relative intracellular concentration and distribution of cellular constituents such as proteins or DNA residues were identified and displayed by construction of two- and three-dimensional Raman maps. The resulting Raman images reflected the significant differences in nanoparticle uptake and intracellular storage of fibroblasts and macrophages. Furthermore, TiO2 nanomaterials could be characterized and the presence of rutile- and anatase-phase TiO2 were determined inside cells. Together, the data shown here prove that Raman spectroscopic imaging is a promising technique for studying the interaction of nanomaterials with living cells and for differentiating intracellular nanoparticles from those localized on the cell membrane. The technology provides a label-free, non-destructive, material-specific analysis of whole cells with high spatial resolution, along with additional information on the current status of the material properties. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.