Mountain wetland restoration: The role of hydrologic regime and plant introductions after 15 years in the Colorado Rocky Mountains, USA

Twelve wetland complexes were buried and/or drained by golf course and ski area development in the Colorado Rocky Mountains in the 1980s and early 1990s. We restored all or portions of each wetland, including fens, wet meadows and riparian areas, during 1997-2002. Intensive pre- and post-construction monitoring was used to develop restoration plans and evaluate their success. We revisited the sites to analyze long-term restoration processes in 2013-2016. Prior to construction the depth to the water table was measured weekly in monitoring wells installed through the fill, and into the wetland surfaces during and following restoration. Reference sites for each wetland type were used to characterize water tabledepth and vegetation for each wetland type. Restoration included removal of fill material and drains to create land surfaces with water table depth and dynamics similar to the reference areas for each wetland type. We planted each site with nursery grown sedges, willows and herbaceous dicots. Post restoration monitoring of water table depth, vegetation composition, sedge shoot density and willow growth was analyzed. The water table depth and dynamics of each restored wetland was similar to suitable reference sites on short and long time scales, indicating a stable hydrologic regime. Carex utriculata reached its maximum shoot density 4-5 years after planting indicating rapid growth and high production. Willow stems were still increasing in height 15 years after planting and basal stem density was also increasing. Most planted herbaceous dicots disappeared, indicating the difficulty of establishing them from plantings. Exotic (nonnative) plants have invaded all three wetland types, with their highest cover in riparian areas. Critical factors that led to success were careful hydrological analysis of reference and restoration sites prior to earthwork, creating appropriate land/ground water interactions, and establishing clonal rhizomatoussedges and native willows. (C) 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.