A review of ethylphenidate in deaths in east and west Scotland

Ethylphenidate is a psychostimulant and analogue of methylphenidate. Interestingly it is also produced as a metabolite from the co-ingestion of methylphenidate and alcohol (ethanol). In the UK, between April and June 2015, ethylphenidate and 6 other methylphenidate based novel psychoactive substances (NPS) were subjected to a temporary class drug order under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. Ethylphenidate is being abused by both novel and habitual drug users, more prominently in the East of Scotland. What is unknown in the literature is the contribution of ethylphenidate in deaths. A search was conducted for an 18 month period (July 2013 to December 2014) to identify cases where ethylphenidate was detected during post-mortem toxicological analysis. Nineteen cases were identified and these cases were examined with regards to case circumstances, pathology findings, toxicology results and adverse effects. The individuals ranged in age from 20 to 54 (median 37) and the majority were male (n = 14) and from the East of Scotland (n = 16), more specifically Edinburgh and surrounding area. Current or previous heroin abuse was a common theme in these cases (n = 16) and injection was a common route of administration of "legal highs'' or "burst''. The concentration of ethylphenidate in the cases ranged from 0.008 mg/L to over 2 mg/L in post-mortem femoral blood (median 0.25 mg/L, average 0.39 mg/L). Other drugs commonly detected were benzodiazepines (n = 15), followed by opiates (n = 11, 4 of which were positive for 6-monoacetylmorphine) and then methadone (n = 8). All 19 cases received a full postmortem examination and there were 10 cases where drug toxicity was the sole or potentially contributory factor to the cause of death. Ethylphenidate was specifically mentioned in the cause of death for 5 cases, chronic intravenous (IV) drug use was named as part of the cause of death for 2 cases and in 6 cases there was evidence of complications and infections through IV drug use. As far as it is known to the authors, this is the first review of post-mortem cases involving the use of ethylphenidate in East and West Scotland. This study can be used as a guide for toxicologists and pathologists when interpreting cases which are positive for ethylphenidate. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.