Hydrogeochemical assessment of groundwater in karst environments, Bringi watershed, Kashmir Himalayas, India

Hydrogeochemical assessment of precipitation, streams and springs of Bringi watershed, SE Kashmir has revealed that Ca and HCO3 are the dominant ions, making up more than 50% of the total ions, which indicates carbonate lithology as the dominant source of ionic species. However, increased Na in some samples, particularly Kongamnag, indicates the impact of silicate weathering on water chemistry. The dominant order of cations and anions in the water samples is Ca > Mg > Na > K and HCO3 > SO4 > Cl respectively. In both streams and springs, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), Ca, HCO3 are high during winter when the discharge is low and low during summer when the discharge is high. However, Kokernag and Achabalnag springs also show higher concentrations during July, resulting from piston effect. The springs show a significant variability of TDS, with highest value of 180 mg/l observed at Achabalnag followed by Kokernag (130 mg/l) and Kongamnag (90 mg/l). The high variability of TDS indicates rapid and strong reaction of Achabalnag to hydrological events followed by Kokernag and Kongamnag.