The lost muscles of the nose

This is a review of the muscular anatomy of the nose. Areas of inconsistency in the main anatomy texts are high-lighted and concentrate particularly on the omission of three identifiable muscles from modern textbooks. Two topographical areas of the nose in need of further anatomical development are identified. In a sample of 121 subjects from the general population, 40% were found to be incapable of flaring the nostrils voluntarily or subconsciously in conjunction with energetic inspiration with the mouth closed. The authors recommend systematic clinical assessment of the nasal musculature be incorporated in the pre- and postoperative examination of the rhinoplasty patient. The division of the nose into five sections for assessment is proposed and the muscles contributing to each area are defined together with their individual surgical relevance.