Virtual chemical laboratories: A systematic literature review of research, technologies and instructional design

Practical laboratory courses are an essential part of chemistry education. However, they can be costly and timeconsuming. They also require physical presence of the teacher and students and access to well-equipped laboratories, which can be hindered due to equipment cost or a pandemic lockdown. Virtual chemical laboratories are digital tools that become very useful in these situations, but what research has been done on these tools and what elements are important in terms of technology and instructional design? This systematic literature review presents an extensive overview of previous research and addresses the different types of technology and instructional design elements. Results of this study show that virtual labs can be more effective than passive teaching methods (e.g., lecture, text and video), but show equal or greater effectiveness compared to hands-on laboratory. Better results are shown when virtual labs and traditional methods are combined. Most of the included studies use 3D Desktop technology, while immersive VR technology is trending in the last few years. This review also identified instructional design elements used in context of virtual chemical labs, for example, inquiry-based learning, modality, instructional scaffolding. Virtual laboratories can be used as an effective complementary tool or temperate alternative to real hands-on laboratory, but future research should put more emphasis in investigating skill-based learning outcomes using immersive VR and NUI technologies and in considering instructional design in virtual chemical laboratories.