Unraveling the Causes of Excess Lead in Drinking Water Supply Systems of Densely Populated High-Rise Buildings in Hong Kong

Excess concentrations of lead (Pb) were found in tap water from drinking water supply systems of high-rise buildings in 11 public rental housing (PRH) estates in Hong Kong, posing threats to public health. The copper supply lines are fitted with lead-soldered connections and brass fixtures and faucets. The causes of excess lead are studied through field sampling on occupied households, experiments on prototype supply chains, and 3D numerical modeling. The tap water lead concentration of 129 households in the PRH estates was sampled using a specially designed protocol, revealing the highly variable lead concentration variations induced by sources along the supply chain. Lead concentration variation at consumer tap and its relation with various lead sources are studied in a full-scale test rig. A 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model is successfully developed to interpret the time variation of lead concentrations at the consumer tap. Model predictions of the complex variation of dissolved lead are in good agreement with data and confirm lead solder in copper pipe connections as a major cause of the "lead water" episode in Hong Kong. The CFD calculations demonstrate the importance of turbulent diffusion and shear flow dispersion in the modeling of lead; the use of a "plug flow" approximation can result in significant overestimation of lead concentration. The findings provide a basis for lead risk assessment of different water sampling strategies in densely populated highrise buildings in Megacities.