Review of theoretical models of the strain-based FLD and their relevance to the stress-based FLD

The forming limit diagram (FLD) is used in sheet metal forming analysis to determine how close the sheet metal is to tearing when it is formed into a product shape in a stamping process. The strain-path dependent nature of the FLD causes the method to become ineffective in the analysis of complex forming process, especially restrikes, flanging operations, hydroforming, and even first draw dies with deep pockets or embossments. Experimental evidence for a path-independent stress-based FLD has been reported in the literature, suggesting that the path dependency of the strain-based approach arises from the path dependent constitutive laws governing the relationship between the stress and strain tensors. This paper reviews several theoretical models of sheet metal forming instability, including bifurcation analyses of diffuse and through-thickness neck formation, the M-K model and microscopic void damage models. The equations governing the deformation at the instant of the bifurcation is shown to be independent of path in all of these models, providing a solid theoretical bases for the stress-based approach. The stress-based FLD can now be used equally well for all forming processes, without concern for path effects. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.