Cryopreservation of articular cartilage. Part 2: Mechanisms of cryoinjury

Although isolated chondrocytes can be cryopreserved by standard methods, at the present time there is no satisfactory method that will preserve living chondrocytes in situ in surgical grafts, between the time of procurement or manufacture and actual use; survival of living chondrocytes in situ is inadequate at best and is also very variable. The first step in identifying the cause of this discrepancy was to establish that the cryoprotectants we had chosen to use, dimethyl sulphoxide and propylene glycol do actually penetrate into the tissue rapidly. They do. Moreover, chondrocytes were shown to tolerate 10 or 20% Me2SO and were not unusually susceptible to osmotic stress. An experiment in which the effects of freezing with 10% Me2SO to -50 degrees C were separated from the effects of the concomitant rise in solute concentration showed that injury was associated with the formation of ice as such. Freeze substitution microscopy showed that large ice crystals were formed within the chondron, some at least within chondrocytes, even when the cooling rate was optimal for isolated chondrocytes. It is proposed that the nucleation and preferential growth of ice within the chondron (rather than the surrounding acellular matrix) is responsible for the very poor survival of chondrocytes in situ when current methods of cartilage cryopreservation are used. (c) 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.