Conflict in the absence of war: a comparative analysis of China and Russia engagement in gray zone conflicts

Wars between states, especially great powers, are now fought in the gray zone, in which elements of soft and unconventional power now dominate the arsenal. The effectiveness of such tools is contingent upon the interconnectedness of the world in the economic and political domains. The liberal international political and economic order provides an opportunity for rapid economic growth - at least for powerful states - but it also creates an opportunity for illiberal states to exploit this environment in their favor. In this paper, I examine the cases of Russia and China which have successfully utilize such gray zone tactics to promote their strategic agendas. I argue that Russia and China's utilization of different tools and technique combinations in their engagement in gray zone conflicts can substantially be attributed to two distinct geostrategic momenta I call "offensive hybridism," utilized by China, and "hybridism in retreat," associated with Russia's actions. My research finds that engagement in gray zone conflicts should not be treated as a homogenous phenomenon to characterize all contemporary interstate disputes. Rather, all participants utilize their distinct tools and combination of techniques, which should be countered with tailored approaches.