Individual differences in mature readers in reading, spelling, and grapheme-phoneme conversion

Individual differences in word recognition, spelling, verbal reasoning, frequency of print exposure, phonological skills, Gestalt processing and semantic processing were examined in 110 university undergraduates. Most reading and phonological tasks involved making sequences of lexical decisions through lists of common stimuli within set time limits. The test measures were percentages correct adjusting for chance. The main findings were as follows: First, there is a substantial "Matthew effect" in that good readers were also good at spelling, good at handling the meaning of words, and appeared to have had the most print exposure. Second, phonological skills appear to be independent of lexical skills. Furthermore, within these phonological skills there appear to be. two components, one that is automatic, and one that is more of a conscious operation.