X chromosome regulation: diverse patterns in development, tissues and disease

Genes on the mammalian X chromosome are present in one copy in mates and two copies in females. The complex mechanisms that regulate the X chromosome lead to evolutionary and physiological variability in gene expression between species, the sexes, individuals, developmental stages, tissues and cell types. In early development, delayed and incomplete X chromosome inactivation (XCI) in some species causes variability in gene expression. Additional diversity stems from escape from XCI and from mosaicism or XCI skewing in females. This causes sex-specific differences that manifest as differential gene expression and associated phenotypes. Furthermore, the complexity and diversity of X dosage regulation affect the severity of diseases caused by X-linked mutations.