Managing socio-ecological systems: who, what and how much? The case of the Banas river, Rajasthan, India

Addressing socio-ecological linkages is essential for diagnosing and proposing solutions to complex sustainability challenges, such as river-basin management, climate adaptation and broader sustainability problems. 'Who?' is integral to an inclusive approach, 'What?' dimensions of supportive ecosystems are included, and 'How much?' of the value of ecosystem services informs management decisions? In complex systems, such as catchments, these questions have to be addressed within inclusive governance arrangements, shaping technology choices and affecting societal and ecosystem outcomes. Historic communal water stewardship in the Banas catchment (Rajasthan, India) balanced the recharge of groundwater from monsoon runoff with its exploitation for irrigation and other uses. However, contemporary mechanised extraction of groundwater, and dam-based and other transfer schemes moving water out-of-catchment to urban, agricultural and other intensive users, now favours influential sectors of society. These intensive water management measures also deplete groundwater, prioritising immediate benefits whilst undermining the vitality and functioning of supporting ecosystems. This creates a degenerative cycle within the socio-ecological system, though this may be reversed with the development of governance systems based on a systemic overview of whole-system functioning. Sustainable stewardship, as practiced historically, needs to be adapted to contemporary conditions by emphasising connections amongst all stakeholders, the foundational capital of overall catchment functioning, and net societal and ecosystem benefits.