Sub-surface movement of stone artefacts at White Paintings Shelter, Tsodilo Hills, Botswana: Implications for the Middle Stone Age chronology of central southern Africa

White Paintings Shelter, Tsodilo Hills, Botswana plays a pivotal role in the archaeological chronology of the Middle Stone Age in the Kalahari. Results of refitting and the application of the chaine operatoire on the Middle Stone Age lithic assemblage from this site suggest that the previously reported relatively undisturbed nature of the lower deposits should be refuted. Potential causes for this admixture include sloping deposits and post-depositional processes. The significant consequences for the Middle Stone Age occupation, dating and transition to the Later Stone Age at White Paintings Shelter are explored. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.