Advances in anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory mechanisms of sinomenine

Sinomenine, a major active ingredient from traditional Chinese medicine Qingfengteng (Sinomenium acutum (Thunb.) Rehd.et Wils.), has been proven to have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-tumor, immunomodulatory and other pharmacological effects, and is clinically used for various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. However, due to complex molecular mechanisms and pathological characteristics in inflammatory and immune responses, the precise anti-inflammatory and immunological mechanisms of sinomenine are still unclear. This review summarizes the anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory mechanisms of sinomenine during recent years in rheumatoid arthritis, respiratory system, nervous system, digestive system and organ transplant rejection. The molecular pharmacological mechanisms of sinomenine responsible for anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects were in detail introduced based on 3 aspects including cytokines induction, signal pathways modulation and immune cells function regulation. Moreover, this review also raises some concerns and challenges in future sinomenine study, which will contribute to crucial theoretical and practical significance for in-depth development and utilization of sinomenine as medicinal resource.