Zones of optimal functioning research: A review and critique

This manuscript reviews and critiques Hanin's (1980, 1986) Zones of Optimal functioning (ZOF) state-anxiety performance relationship hypothesis and the research that has been conducted to test its effectiveness. The review of the ZOF research revealed that it has fairly good support, although a number of the the existing studies have inherent methodological and/or conceptual limitations. One major weakness identified with the ZOF notion was its lack of any theoretical base. Hence, it was emphasized that future investigators design studies aimed at better understanding ''why'' ZOFs exist and ''how'' they may influence athletic performance via mechanisms such as attentional and muscle tension/coordination changes. Finally, a number of future research directions were forwarded. These included: the need for more adequate and complete ZOF tests; direct comparisons of the power of multidimensional and undimensional slate anxiety generated ZOFs to predict performance, ZOF task type performance studies;investigations integrating state anxiety ZOFs with other arousal-related emotions; studies aimed at extending and testing ZOFs in non-athletic performance domains; and examinations of how ZOFs develop in athletes.