Avian echocardiography

Echocardiography in birds is a useful intravitam technique for morphological and functional cardiac assessment, although the technical equipment has to be advanced to examine the avian heart. Probes with small coupling surfaces and frequencies of at least 7.5 MHz are necessary, and ultrasound devices should be able to produce at least 100 frames/s. A bipolar ECG is used to examine the heart in endsystolic and enddiastolic state. Two approaches for coupling the probe are are described. By using the ventromedian approach, two horizontal longitudinal views present the chambers, the interventricular septum, and the valves of the heart. Reference values for B-Mode and spectral Doppler are available for different species, but experiences with Doppler examinations in diseased birds are still rare. Common pathological echocardiographic findings in birds are hydropericardium, hypertrophy and/or dilation of the right ventricle, and hypertropy of the muscular right atrioventricular valve. Copyright 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.