Predictors of parental disciplinary practices and associations with child outcomes among Ghanaian preschoolers

Violent discipline can have harmful effects on child development, particularly behavioral outcomes. The majority of research on the topic has been conducted in high-income countries, despite the fact that high rates of physical discipline have been documented across low- and middle-income countries. In this study, we examined three forms of disciplinary practices-physical, psychological aggression, and nonviolent-among caregivers of preschoolers in Ghana. First, we assessed how child, caregiver, and household characteristics predicted the use of disciplinary practices. Endorsement of physical discipline, having a younger child, lower caregiver education, younger caregiver age, female caregivers, and having a female child were associated with higher use of physical punishment. Household size, female caregivers, endorsement of physical discipline, and having a female child were associated with higher use of psychological aggression. Higher caregiver education and having no male in the household were positively associated with nonviolent punishment practices, while child age was negatively predictive. Second, we examined how punishment practices predicted children's social-behavioral and academic outcomes. Physical punishment predicted lower approaches to learning and literacy skills, and nonviolent punishment predicted higher approaches to learning, social-emotional skills, and literacy skills. Third, we examined if associations of punishment and child outcomes were moderated by child age and sex. Negative associations of physical punishment with numeracy skills were larger for younger children; negative associations of psychological aggression with social-emotional skills were larger for girls.