Visual sensitivity to a conspicuous male cue varies by reproductive state in Physalaemus pustulosus females

The vocal sac is a visually conspicuous attribute of most male frogs, but its role in visual communication has only been demonstrated recently in diurnally displaying frogs. Here we characterized the spectral properties of the inflated vocal sac of male tungara frogs ( Physalaemus pustulosus), a nocturnal species, and tungara visual sensitivity to this cue across reproductive state and sex. We measured the spectral and total reflectance of different male body regions, including inflated and non-inflated vocal sacs, along with samples of the visual background against which males are perceived. Inflated vocal sacs were the most reflective of all body parts, being one log unit more reflective than background materials. We utilized an optomotor drum with black stripes and stripes that mimicked the spectral reflectance of the inflated vocal sacs with various nocturnal light intensities to measure the visual sensitivity thresholds of males, non-reproductive females and reproductive females. All three groups exhibited visual sensitivities corresponding to intensities below moonless conditions in open habitats or at the edge of secondary tropical forests. Reproductive females exhibited the greatest visual sensitivity of all groups, and were significantly more sensitive than nonreproductive females. Though the mechanism for this physiological difference between reproductive and non-reproductive females is unknown, it is consistent with previously observed patterns of light-dependent phonotaxic behavior in tungaras. We suggest that the visual ecology of the vocal sac, especially in nocturnal frogs, offers a rich source for investigations of visual ecology and physiological regulation of vision.