Clinical significance of fluid biomarkers in Alzheimer's Disease

The number of patients with Alzheimer's Disease (AD) and other types of dementia disorders has drastically increased over the last decades. AD is a complex progressive neurodegenerative disease affecting about 14 million patients in Europe and the United States. The hallmarks of this disease are neurotic plaques consist of the Amyloid-beta peptide (A beta) and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) formed of hyperphosphorylated Tau protein (pTau). Currently, four CSF biomarkers: Amyloid beta 42 (A beta 42), A beta 42/40 ratio, Tau protein, and Tau phosphorylated at threonine 181 (pTau181) have been indicated as core neurochemical AD biomarkers. However, the identification of additional fluid biomarkers, useful in the prognosis, risk stratification, and monitoring of drug response is sorely needed to better understand the complex heterogeneity of AD pathology as well as to improve diagnosis of patients with the disease. Several novel biomarkers have been extensively investigated, and their utility must be proved and eventually integrated into guidelines for use in clinical practice. This paper presents the research and development of CSF and blood biomarkers for AD as well as their potential clinical significance. Graphic abstract Upper panel: A beta peptides are released from transmembrane Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) under physiological conditions (blue arrow). In AD, however, pathologic accumulation of A beta monomers leads to their accumulation in plaques (red arrow). This is reflected in decreased concentration of A beta 1-42 and decreased A beta 42/40 concentration ratio in the CSF. Lower panel: Phosphorylated Tau molecules maintain axonal structures; hyperphosphorylation of Tau (red arrow) in AD leads to degeneration of axons, and release of pTau molecules, which then accumulate in neurofibrillary tangles. This process is reflected by increased concentrations of Tau and pTau in the CSF.