Technology and institutions in changing specialization: chemicals and motor vehicles in the United States, United Kingdom, and Germany

There were radical changes in national specialization during the 20th century: Germanys loss of dominanceto the United States' and United Kingdomin much of the chemicals industry; the United States loss of dominancepartly to Germanyand the collapse of the United Kingdom, in motor vehicles. The main measures used are patenting, trade and sales. The reversal is explained in terms of changing institutional demands of the sectors as their dominant technologies changed, and of far-reaching changes in the institutions relevant to the national system of innovation.